ARABIC CUSINE
ARABIC CUSINE
Arabic food refers to the food of the Arabian
Peninsula, the largest country being Saudi Arabia, located in the southern
region of the Middle East, which covers2149700 sq. Km., which is three quarters
of the Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by the Persian Gulf and U.A.E. to the
east, Oman and Yemen to the south, the Red Sea to the west and Jordan, Iraq and
Kuwait to the north.
Sunni Muslims make up ninety percent of Saudi Arabia’s
25 million inhabitants, the majority is of tribal ancestry. The indigenous Bedouin
tribe’s food culture and the cultural influence of Islam forms the main
characteristic of Arabian food.
The Bedouin tribe were nomadic herdsmen who lived in
the deserts of Arabia and North Africa. The Bedouin existence depended on their
herds and flocks. The camel was the supreme possession providing transport,
milk for food and beverage, meat, hair, hides and dung for fuel. The camel
allowed men to conquer the desert as they are capable of sustained travel in
the desert. It was because of the camel these Arabs became the middle men in
the caravan spice trade. These trade links brought spices and seasonings from
Africa, India, Far East and Iraq and supplied them to the European countries.
The Bedouin food culture was based on the simple
scarce food available in the region and their famed hospitality culture of
honouring the guest. The main dish is centred on meat, chicken, fish or prawns,
cooked in a sauce or roasted, baked or grilled, as in kebabs, with rice
accompaniments. Simply dressed salads including peppery cess and cucumbers are
common. Flat bread, curds and pickles accompany meats.
Islam, which had taken roots in the 6th
century A.D., has dominated the Muslim culture by initiating strict culinary
taboos which forbids ingesting alcohol, pork and blood. Lamb is the most
popular meat and Khouzi the national dish is a whole spit roasted lamb stuffed
with chicken, eggs and spiced rice.
In Muslim culture mixing of sexes is discouraged, men
and women dine separately; males eat before women and children.
Dates are commonly used in sweet and savoury dishes. Coffee is the main
drink and has strong association with the renowned hospitality of the people.
It is prepared from finely ground, well roasted beans and may be flavoured with
cardamons.
Originally, the Arabs of
the Arabian
Peninsula relied heavily on a diet of dates, wheat, barley, rice and meat, with little variety
and heavy emphasis on yoghurt
products, such as labneh
(yoghurt without butterfat).
There is a
strong emphasis on the following items in Arabian cuisine:
·
Meat: lamb and chicken are the most used,
with beef and camel used to a lesser
degree. Other poultry is
used in some regions, and in coastal areas, pork is completely
prohibited— for Muslim
Arabs, being both a cultural taboo
and prohibited under Islamic law;
many Christian
Arabs also avoid pork as they have never acquired a taste for it,
although this is often not the case in Lebanon, where cold cuts of ham are
frequently consumed in Christian neighbourhoods.
·
Dairy products: dairy
products are widely used, especially yoghurt and white cheese. Butter and cream are also used extensively.
· Herbs and spices: mint and thyme (often in a mix
called za'atar) are
widely and almost universally used; spices are used much less than the Indian cuisine, but the
amount and types generally varies from region to region. Some of the included
herbs and spices are sesame, saffron, turmeric, garlic, cumin, cinnamon, and sumac. Spice mixtures
include baharat.
·
Grains: rice is the staple and is
used for most dishes; wheat
is the main source for bread. Bulgur and semolina are also used extensively.
·
Legumes: lentils are widely used as
well as fava beans and
chickpeas (garbanzo beans).
·
Vegetables and fruits: Arabic cuisine
also favors vegetables such as cucumbers,
eggplant (aubergine), zucchini (courgette), okra and onions, and fruits (primarily citrus) which are often
used as seasonings for entrees. Olives as
well as dates,
figs and pomegranate are also
widely used.
Greens: parsley and mint are popular as seasonings in many dishes, while spinach and mulukhiyah (leaves of plants of the Corchorus genus) are used in cooked dishes.
Notably, many of the same spices used in Arabian cuisine are also those
emphasized in Indian cuisine. This is a result of heavy trading and historical
ties between the two regions.
Culture
Essential to any cooking in the Arabian Peninsula is
the concept of hospitality and generosity. Meals are generally large family
affairs, with much sharing and a great deal of warmth over the dinner table.
Formal dinners and celebrations generally involve large quantities of lamb, and
every occasion entails large quantities of Arabic coffee. In an average Gulf
Arab state household, a visitor might expect a dinner consisting of a very
large platter, shared commonly, with a vast amount of rice, incorporating lamb
or chicken, or both, as separate dishes, with various stewed vegetables,
heavily spiced, sometimes with a tomato based sauce. Most likely there would be
several other less hearty items on the side. Tea would certainly accompany the
meal, as it is almost constantly consumed. Coffee would be included as well.
Structure of meals
There are two basic structures for meals in the Arab
world, one regular and one specific for the month of Ramadan.
Breakfast
Cafés often offer croissants for
breakfast. Breakfast is often a quick meal consisting of bread and dairy
products with tea and sometimes with jam. The most used is labneh and
cream,.
Labneh is served with olives,
dried mint and drizzled with olive
oil. Pastries such as manaqeesh, sfiha, fatayer and
kahi are sometimes eaten for breakfast. Flat
bread with olive
oil and za'tar is also popular. Most Arab families also
consume hummus and
falafel with
pita
bread.
Lunch
Lunch is considered the main meal of the day and is
traditionally eaten after the noon prayer. It is the meal for which the family
comes together and, when entertaining, it is the meal of choice to invite
guests to. Rarely do meals have different courses; however, salads and
maza (an appetizer) are served as side dishes to the main meal. The latter
usually consists of a portion of meat, poultry
or fish,
a portion of rice, lentil, bread or bagel
and a portion of cooked vegetables in addition to the fresh ones with the maza
and salad. The vegetables and meat are usually cooked together in a sauce
Drinks are not necessarily served with the food; however, there is a very wide
variety of drinks such as shineena (or laban), Karakaden,
Naque‘e Al Zabib, Irq soos, Tamr Hindi as well as fruit juices. During the 20th
century, carbonated beverages and fruit based drinks, sold by supermarkets,
have also become very popular.
Dinner
Dinner is traditionally the lightest meal, although
in modern times and due to changing lifestyles, dinner has become more
important.
Ramadan meals
In addition to the two meals mentioned hereafter,
during Ramadan sweets are
consumed much more than usual; sweets and fresh fruits are served between these
two meals. Although most sweets are made all year round such as knafeh, baklawa and basbousa, some are made
especially for Ramadan, such as Qatayef.
Futuur
Futuur (also called iftar, Afur in Somali) or fast-breaking, is the meal
taken at dusk when the fast is
over. The meal consists of three courses: first, an odd number of dates based
on Islamic tradition. This is
followed by a soup, the most popular being lentil soup, but a wide variety of
soups such as chicken, oats, freeka (a soup made from a form of whole wheat and chicken broth),
potato, maash and others are also offered. The third course is the main dish,
usually eaten after an interval when Maghreb prayer is conducted. The main dish
is mostly similar to lunch, except that cold drinks are also served.
Sahur
Sahar is the meal eaten just before the dawn when fasting must begin. It is
eaten to help the person make it through the day with enough energy.
BREAD
The invention of leavened bread is attributed to the
Egyptians. The Greeks baked on grids in an oven like stricture. Romans cooked
their bread is household ovens made of brick and earth. It was in the Middle
Ages that the bakery trade began to develop, bread became very varied and many
different kinds of bread were produced.
Definition: Bread is food made from flour and water dough with yeast,
which is fermented, kneaded and baked in the oven. The action of yeast gives
bread its characteristic texture and flavour.
Bread is the only food, which, like wine, is present
on the table from start to finish of any meal; bread constitutes the
traditional accompaniment to all dishes. It is also the basic ingredient in
sandwiches, canapés, toasts, croutons & breadcrumbs. In addition to this it
is used widely in the preparations of the other dishes like, soups, gazpacho
& garlic soup, panadas, stuffing‘s & forcemeats, timbales, charlottes
& pudding and even in sauces. Good bread must have a crisp crust, an
attractive golden colour and as soft crumb. Growing state to quickly is a sign
of bad quality. Most bread should be served fresh but not hot. A daily intake
of 300 gms provides 125gms carbohydrates 25gms proteins, 2 gms fat calcium,
phosphorus, magnesium potassium and it gives 750 calories.
The baking/making
of bread comprises of 3 main operations kneading fermentation and
baking.
The following
ingredients are necessary for bread making
1. Maida
2. Yeast
3. Sugar
4. Fat and
5. Salt
1. Refined flour or Maida
Only strong and not weak flour is used for making
bread. Strong flour has reference to the character of flour. Wheat flour
contains both soluble and insoluble proteins. Proteins along with other
components join when water is added. When this occurs, two of the insoluble
proteins namely glutenin and gliadin join in the presence of water forming a
tough, somewhat rubbery material called gluten. Glutenin gives solidity to the
product whilst gliadin is the binding imparting the soft, sticky character to
gluten. The gluten of strong flour is tough, resists extension is capable of
withstanding prolonged periods of fermentation without breaking down producing
good loafs. Flour containing such gluten is capable of absorbing a high
percentage of water.
Diastatic enzymes present in the wheat flour affect the
gassing power of the flour. If flour is deficient in diastase the final proving
of the bread will be unsatisfactory. On the other hand, if too much diastatic
action occurs the bread will still be unsatisfactory having a strictly crumb.
SALT
Why salt is
used in Bread making?
Bread made without salt is insipid and flavourless;
therefore, salt makes bread palatable and appetizing. The quantity of salt
needed is also the right quantity to exercise adequate control over the speed
of yeast action (1 Kg of flour is to 30 gm of salt) If too much salt is added
the bread will be too salty for pleasant eating whilst there will also be
slowing down of yeast action.
Dough with too little salt in them suffers because of
the lack of control over yeast activity and fermentation, allowing the
production of excessive acidity. Sat has a physical effect on the gluten of
flour. In reasonable quantities, it strengthens gluten and increases its
resistance to the general softening effects of fermentation. Too much salt will
completely rob it of its power of holding gas.
If salt is not added at all, then the yeast in the
dough will be able to consume excessive quantities of sugar during its
uncontrolled speedy action during fermentation that there may be insufficient
sugar left at baking time to give perfect crust colour.
Loaves made from dough containing too little salt
will lack volume because the gluten has not been strengthened sufficiently. The
weak gluten strands will break down giving crumbly bread with large holes in
texture.
Dough made with rather too much salt will have
toughened gluten, which will have been insufficiently ripened, producing bread
of subnormal volume and with unsightly holes in the texture.
Yeast
Yeast is living micro organism, the one used for
bread making is known as baker‘s yeast or scientifically as ―Saccharomycees Cerevisiae.
Like all living things yeast can only work well
between certain temperatures. The ideal and optimum temp, for the working of
yeast is between 780 and 820 F. It works steadily at 760F
but rather too slowly. Above 84°F the speed of fermentation is very great but fermentation of dough may be
undesirable. Above 1400F the proteins in yeast get coagulated, the
cells cease to function and then die. Yeast grows better in a slightly acid medium.
Yeast may be stored in a refrigerator at 36to 400
F. If no refrigerator is available, remove from packet and press it into a
clean, dry earthenware vessel. Stand the jar in cold water and cover with a
piece of clean muslin the ends of which dip into water.
For fermentation to occur normally dough must be made
at a suitable temperature. In very cold weather very hot water may be needed.
But under no conditions should the water temperature be above 1100F.
If salt comes into direct contact with yeast in
sufficient concentrations the yeast will be destroyed. This is because salt
will deprive the yeast cells of its water. The salt should be dissolved in
water separate from the yeast solution. When salt is approx 3% of the solution
its effect on yeast is not deadly but merely restrictive.
After making dough at the right temperature it is
essential to see that the dough retains that temperature during fermentation.
If it becomes chilled yeast action will slow down. The dough should be
protected from draught of air especially cold air. They should preferably be
fermented in bowls, which are bad conductors of heat.
Fats
Fats used in small quantities, act as a gluten
lubricant, the strands of which then slide over one another and so appear to
extend more easily, and the dough ripens more readily. The crumb is made
moister, is wither and more even in texture. Crust are thinner and more biscuit
like owing to the shortening properties of fats, and the general build of the
loaf is better. If fats are used in
heavy quantities it causes bread to be clammy and alter its eating qualities.
The undesirable characteristics that would be
apparent when using large quantities of fat can be counteracted by the use of
milk powder. Milk powder imparts bloom to the crust, makes the crumb a delicate
creamy yellow colour but makes the bread crumbly. Where both fat and milk are
used the crumb is creamy, soft, and even in texture crusts are thin and short
eating and the loaf volume very satisfactory.
SUGAR
There must be sufficient sugar in the dough at the
final proving stage from which the yeast can generate gas. Sucrose or glucose
may be added to dough if greater gassing powers are required. Therefore sugar
is needed for final proving to give sufficient volume to the loaf and for
caramelization on the crust of the bread during baking. The quantity of sugar
used in dough should be small. Sugar has a dispersing action on the gluten of
flour and large quantities can completely destroy its tenacity and
extensibility.
Bread Making
There are many satisfactory methods of making bread
given below are details of each of the methods that may be employed for making
bread.
I
Straight Dough Method
When the whole of the flour, yeast, salt, water yeast
food and enriching materials are taken and, at one operation, amalgamated by
hand or machine into dough, the method is called the straight dough method of
bread making. It is the least complicate of all dough making processes. The
greater the quantity of yeast the shorter the length of time the dough will
require in which to reach maturity and vice-versa. Excellent bread can be made
by suing extra yeast in a cool dough and adding a little extra salt. However to
obtain good results it is not advisable to speed up fermentation by use of high
temperature and a small quantity of salt.
II Delayed Salt
Method
A simple but very effective variation of the straight
dough process is the delayed salt method. In
this the whole of the ingredients except the salt are mixed together to
make the dough which is then allowed to ferment for approx 30 min the salt is
then sieved over the surface of the
dough and thoroughly mixed.
By this process stronger flour are ripened more
quickly and extra flavour is produced in the bread. This is achieved because no
salt is present for most of the fermentation period hence yeast works more
rapidly as do acid forming bacteria present in the dough.
III FERMENT AND DOUGH
Ferment is a thin liqueur prepared at a suitable temp
containing all the essential food that is required by yeast. It is generally
prepared with only a portion of the water that must eventually be used to make
the finished dough. All he yeast, yeast food and some of the flour are mixed in
to the selected quantity of water and a period to time allowed to elapse during which the yeast
can set to work and reach an active, vigorous condition before it is called
upon to undertake the more serious and difficult work of fermenting the whole
of the flour. Ferment offers yeast a period to recuperate, so that when the
remaining ingredients are added to make the dough it can get on with the
heavier work efficiently. The ferment is usually allowed to work until it has
risen up the vessel in which it is contained to the fullest limits of the
extensibility of the gluten. When this point is reached and passed the gluten
strands break and the mixture subsides. The ferment is then ready for dough
making.
IV
Sponge & Dough
A quarter of the amount of the total flour needed for
the final dough is removed and mixed with sufficient water to make very a soft
dough. Into this mixture a small quantity yeast and salt are mixed and allowed
to ferment slowly over a long period. The time can be regulated by the amount
of yeast used and the temperature at which the sponge is set. When the sponge
has cradled the production of an increased army of yeast cells, the remaining
ingredients are added and the dough is made.
V
Flying sponge
Instead of making a sponge to lie for many hours a
similar mixture can be prepared with larger quantities of yeast that are normal
for straight dough process, and allowed to lie for an hour. They are referred
to as flying sponges because it takes less time to prepare the dough.
VI
No time dough
method
In this method dough is
not fermented in the usual manner. It is allowed to ferment for a short period
so the twin function of fermentation i.e. production of gas and conditioning of
gluten are achieved to some extent by increasing the amount of yeast and by
vigorously beating the dough using mechanical dough mixers so that the dough
becomes a little slack and warm. The dough is then shaped and directly
deposited in bread moulds for final proving before they are baked. It is
possible to get a good product using this method but the product has poor
keeping quality and lacks aroma due to short fermentation time, the gluten and
starch are not conditioned to hold moisture and there is no flavour because
flavour producing bi-products of fermentation are absent because of increased
quantity of yeast present. The bread may have a strong yeast flavour.
Staling of Bakery Products and
Mold Infection
There are three ways in which bakery products stale. They are, Starch
Retrogradation (firming of the crumb), getting infected by molds and rope; See
Below.
In simple terms, staling of crumb (firming of crumb) is the process the
starch molecules go through when they shrink upon cooling. Starch molecule
consists of a very long chain of Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen that are stretched
out when warm and feel soft. Upon cooling, the chain shrinks and thus become
firm which is called staling. You have probably experienced that when a stale
product is warmed, it becomes soft. The starch chain has stretched again. Upon
cooling, it shrinks again and become firm.
Anti-Staling Ingredients:
1.
Emulsifiers. For the past several years bakers used emulsifiers called
bread softeners to produce bread that will remain soft for a longer period of
time. It is added to the dough
during mixing. Some of the more common ones are monoglycrides, calcium stearoyl
lactylate, and sodium stearoyl lactylate. The softening action takes place after
the bread is baked. Also, Potato bread will resist staling because potatoes act
as anti-staling ingredients to some degree. Some anti-staling ingredients also
perform as dough conditioners or dough strengtheners.
2.
Enzymes. Enzyme manufacturers are hard at work on generic engineering and
protein engineering producing enzymes to extend the shelf life of bread many
fold. In a paper presented at the
1999 American Society of Baking's Annual Convention, it was stated that some of
these enzymes are available now.
However, since every baker wants to have one better, enzyme manufacturers will
continue to work on developing better ones. It
was also stated that there is a lag time of between 2 and 3 years
between the time a specific enzyme is identified and actually having it
available for the baker to use.
Advantages of Using Enzymes instead of Chemicals. Since enzymes are
produced from natural ingredients, they will find greater acceptance by the
housewife than when chemicals are used.
3.
Mold and Mold Inhibitors. Sanitation plays a very important role in
preventing mold in bread. Mold spores do not survive baking temperatures. The interior of the loaf, when it comes out of
the oven is about 210 to 212 degrees F. which will destroy any mold spores
which may be present in the dough. Therefore, bread and other bakery products
can only be contaminated after they leave the
oven.
Some of the more dangerous areas
for mold contamination are storage rooms, and slicing machine blades which
come in direct contact with the interior of the loaf where there is an abundant
supply of food and moisture. Mold spores also thrive in dark places. You can
extend the length of time that it takes bakery products to mold by several days
by using Mold Inhibitors such as Calcium Propionate for yeast raised doughs and
sodium propionate in chemically leavened products. Propionates are present in
many foods, but in very small amounts. Swiss Cheese, however is an exception.
For this reason, Swiss Cheese rarely molds, unless it is improperly developed.
Propionates may be obtained by the oxidization of propyl alcohol, forming
propionic acid. The propionic acid is in turn combined with other chemicals to
form the well known Sodium and Calcium propionates sold under different Trades
Names. Mold Inhibitors react as an alkaline in doughs, and since yeast doesn't
like an alkaline condition, Mineral Yeast Foods containing monocalcium
phosphate are added to the dough. Monocalcium Phosphate reacts as an acid in
doughs therefore counter-acting the alkaline which is formed by the
propionates. Also, vinegar can be used at the rate of about 1 pint per 100
pounds of flour. Inhibitors are called inhibitors, because not enough is used
to kill the mold. They only retard the growth of molds. Bread will mold eventually
if kept in a warm moist invironment. The amounts of Calcium Propionates to use
in bread varies with the climate, season of the year, or type of product. Dark
Breads require more than White Breads. For average climates, 2.5 to 3.5 ounces
are used per 100 pounds of flour in White Breads and 4.0 to 5.0 ounces are used
in Dark Breads.
Types and Color of Molds.
There are many different types of molds and they have different colors. Mold
spores are practically everywhere, because they are very tiny and are carried
in the air. They are so tiny that they can only be seen under a microscope.
Mold Spores are like seeds that you plant in the garden. When they come in
contact with the proper food, moisture and warmth, the spores produce mold
plants which you can see with the naked eye.
Rope. Rope is a bread disease
caused by the bacteria, Bacillus mesentericus. This disease breaks down the
cells of the bread and leaves a sticky, pasty mass. When the crumb is pressed
together,and pulled apart, it will stretch into long, sticky, web-like strands.
The product will have the odor of over-ripe cantalope. The rope bacteria are
too small to see with the naked eye, but they can be seen with a microscope.
The bacteria can be present in the ingredients, especially flour and yeast.
Unlike mold, rope spores are not destroyed by baking temperatures. Calcium
propionate, sodium diacetate or one pint of vinegar per 100 pounds of flour can
be used in bread doughs to increase the shelf life of the product. If the
bakery is contaminated, thorough cleaning with special chemicals will be
necessary and/or the bakery may have to be steam cleaned.
External Bread Faults
|
Symptom |
Causes |
|
Crust
too dark |
-
Oven
temperature too high -
Excessive milk
or sugar. -
Excessive
baking time. -
Over proofing. |
|
Crust
too light |
-
Oven
temperature too low. -
Insufficient
milk or sugar. -
Insufficient
baking time. -
Insufficient proofing. -
Insufficient mixing. |
|
Crust
broken |
-
Insufficient proofing. -
Insufficient liquid. |
|
Crust
too hard |
-
Oven
temperature too high -
Insufficient proofing. -
Insufficient
sugar or shortening. -
Excessive steam. -
Insufficient liquid. -
Baking time too long. |
|
Crust
too soft |
-
Oven
temperature too low -
Excessive
sugar/egg yolks/shortening. -
Excessive
oil/margarine as a wash. -
Insufficient
steam during baking. -
Baking time too
short or wrong bread machine setting. |
Internal Bread Faults
|
Symptom |
Causes |
|
Coarse
and irregular grain |
-
Improper mixing procedures. -
Stiff batter. -
Careless or poor
depositing in the pans. -
Oven too cool,
(baked too slowly). |
|
Dense
grain |
-
Excessive
liquid in the batter. -
Improper mixing procedure. |
|
Off-color
breads |
-
Improper mixing procedure. -
Oven too cool,
(baked too slowly). -
Unclean equipment. |
|
If raisins, nuts or dried fruit
sunk to the bottom |
-
Pieces of fruit
were too large and too heavy. -
Sugary syrup on
the outside of the fruit was not washed off- causing the pieces of fruit to slide through the mixture as it heated. -
Washed and
dried fruit was not dusted with flour
before being added to the mixture. -
Bread mixture
was over beaten or was too wet so
it could not hold the fruit in place. -
Oven
temperature was too low, causing the mixture to melt before it set to hold
the fruit in place. |
General Bread Faults
|
Symptom |
Causes |
|
Batter
over-flowed the pans |
-
Wrong
adjustments to recipes (too much liquid,
flour etc.) -
Wrong size pan
used. Mixture should fill 2/3 of pan. |
|
Poor
flavor |
-
Improper mixing procedure. -
Improper
cleaning and greasing of the pans. -
Faulty baking conditions. -
Improper cleaning
of the equipment. |
|
Breads
too tough |
-
Excessive mixing. -
Batter too
stiff (insufficient water). -
Batter too thin
(excessive water). |
|
Lacks
body/structure |
-
Excessive mixing -
Insufficient liquid. |
|
Dries
out too soon |
-
Excessive
baking time. -
Insufficient liquid. -
Improper mixing procedures. -
Cooled in a
drafty location. |
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